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Wake up with the glow of the first rays of the sun over the mangrove forest. First a hearty breakfast with a view of the islands Nosy Much medieval French poetry and literature were inspired by the legends of the Matter of France , such as The Song of Roland and the various chansons de geste.

The Roman de Renart , written in by Perrout de Saint Cloude, tells the story of the medieval character Reynard ‘the Fox’ and is another example of early French writing. Michel de Montaigne was another major figure of French literature during that century. His most famous work, Essais , created the literary genre of the essay. Generations of French pupils had to learn his fables, which were seen as helping teach wisdom and common sense to the young people. French literature and poetry flourished even more in the 18th and 19th centuries.

During that same century, Charles Perrault was a prolific writer of famous children’s fairy tales including Puss in Boots , Cinderella , Sleeping Beauty and Bluebeard. The 19th century saw the writings of many renowned French authors. Victor Hugo is sometimes seen as “the greatest French writer of all time” [] for excelling in all literary genres.

The preface of his play Cromwell is considered to be the manifesto of the Romantic movement. The Prix Goncourt is a French literary prize first awarded in Medieval philosophy was dominated by Scholasticism until the emergence of Humanism in the Renaissance.

Descartes was the first Western philosopher since ancient times to attempt to build a philosophical system from the ground up rather than building on the work of predecessors. French philosophers produced some of the most important political works of the Age of Enlightenment. In The Spirit of the Laws , Baron de Montesquieu theorised the principle of separation of powers , which has been implemented in all liberal democracies since it was first applied in the United States.

Voltaire came to embody the Enlightenment with his defence of civil liberties, such as the right to a free trial and freedom of religion. De Maistre, together with the Englishman Edmund Burke , was one of the founders of European conservatism. In the 20th century, partly as a reaction to the perceived excesses of positivism, French spiritualism thrived with thinkers such as Henri Bergson and it influenced American pragmatism and Whitehead ‘s version of process philosophy.

France has a long and varied musical history. It experienced a golden age in the 17th century thanks to Louis XIV, who employed many talented musicians and composers in the royal court.

After the death of the “Roi Soleil”, French musical creation lost dynamism, but in the next century the music of Jean-Philippe Rameau reached some prestige, and today he is still one of the most renowned French composers. Rameau became the dominant composer of French opera and the leading French composer for the harpsichord.

French composers played an important role during the music of the 19th and early 20th century, which is considered to be the Romantic music era. Romantic music emphasised a surrender to nature, a fascination with the past and the supernatural, the exploration of unusual, strange and surprising sounds, and a focus on national identity.

This period was also a golden age for operas. Later came precursors of modern classical music. Maurice Ravel and Claude Debussy are the most prominent figures associated with Impressionist music.

Debussy was among the most influential composers of the late 19th and early 20th centuries, and his use of non-traditional scales and chromaticism influenced many composers who followed. The two composers invented new musical forms [] [] [] [] and new sounds. Ravel’s piano compositions, such as Jeux d’eau , Miroirs , Le tombeau de Couperin and Gaspard de la nuit , demand considerable virtuosity. More recently, in the middle of the 20th century, Maurice Ohana , Pierre Schaeffer and Pierre Boulez contributed to the evolutions of contemporary classical music.

French music then followed the rapid emergence of pop and rock music at the middle of the 20th century. In the s and s decade , electronic duos Daft Punk , Justice and Air also reached worldwide popularity and contributed to the reputation of modern electronic music in the world. Among current musical events and institutions in France, many are dedicated to classical music and operas.

It is noted for having a strong film industry, due in part to protections afforded by the Government of France. France remains a leader in filmmaking, as of [update] producing more films than any other European country.

Apart from its strong and innovative film tradition, France has also been a gathering spot for artists from across Europe and the world. For this reason, French cinema is sometimes intertwined with the cinema of foreign nations. France historically was the cultural centre of the world, [] although its dominant position has been surpassed by the United States.

Today, France takes steps in protecting and promoting its culture, becoming a leading advocate of the cultural exception. Fashion has been an important industry and cultural export of France since the 17th century, and modern “haute couture” originated in Paris in the s.

Today, Paris, along with London, Milan, and New York City, is considered one of the world’s fashion capitals , and the city is home or headquarters to many of the premier fashion houses. The expression Haute couture is, in France, a legally protected name, guaranteeing certain quality standards. The association of France with fashion and style French: la mode dates largely to the reign of Louis XIV [] when the luxury goods industries in France came increasingly under royal control and the French royal court became, arguably, the arbiter of taste and style in Europe.

But France renewed its dominance of the high fashion French: couture or haute couture industry in the years — through the establishing of the great couturier houses such as Chanel , Dior , and Givenchy.

The French perfume industry is world leader in its sector and is centred on the town of Grasse. In the s, the elitist “Haute couture” came under criticism from France’s youth culture.

The s saw a conglomeration of many French couture houses under luxury giants and multinationals such as LVMH. According to data compiled by Deloitte , Louis Vuitton Moet Hennessey LVMH , a French brand, is the largest luxury company in the world by sales, selling more than twice the amount of its nearest competitor.

The most influential news magazines are the left-wing Le Nouvel Observateur , centrist L’Express and right-wing Le Point more than , copies , [] but the highest circulation for weeklies is reached by TV magazines and by women’s magazines, among them Marie Claire and ELLE , which have foreign versions. Like in most industrialised nations, the print media have been affected by a severe crisis in the past decade. In , the government launched a major initiative to help the sector reform and become financially independent, [] [] but in it had to give , euros to help the print media cope with the economic crisis , in addition to existing subsidies.

In , after years of centralised monopoly on radio and television, the governmental agency ORTF was split into several national institutions, but the three already-existing TV channels and four national radio stations [] [] remained under state-control.

It was only in that the government allowed free broadcasting in the territory, ending the state monopoly on radio. Public broadcasting group Radio France runs five national radio stations. In , the government created global news channel France According to a poll in , the French were found to have the highest level of religious tolerance and to be the country where the highest proportion of the population defines its identity primarily in term of nationality and not religion.

The French Revolution continues to permeate the country’s collective memory. In addition, Bastille Day , the national holiday, commemorates the storming of the Bastille on 14 July A common and traditional symbol of the French people is the Gallic rooster. Its origins date back to Antiquity since the Latin word Gallus meant both ” rooster ” and “inhabitant of Gaul”. Then this figure gradually became the most widely shared representation of the French, used by French monarchs, then by the Revolution and under the successive republican regimes as representation of the national identity, used for some stamps and coins.

France is one of the world leaders of gender equality in the workplace: as of , it has In , France was ranked fifth in the Environmental Performance Index behind the United Kingdom , out of countries ranked by Yale University in that study. French cuisine is renowned for being one of the finest in the world.

France’s most renowned products are wines , [] including Champagne, Bordeaux , Bourgogne , and Beaujolais as well as a large variety of different cheeses , such as Camembert , Roquefort and Brie. There are more than different varieties. The plat principal could include a pot au feu or steak frites. French cuisine is also regarded as a key element of the quality of life and the attractiveness of France.

By , the Michelin Guide had awarded stars to French restaurants, at that time more than any other country, although the guide also inspects more restaurants in France than in any other country by , Japan was awarded as many Michelin stars as France, despite having half the number of Michelin inspectors working there. In addition to its wine tradition, France is also a major producer of beer and rum. France produces rum via distilleries located on islands such as Reunion Island in the southern Indian Ocean.

France hosts “the world’s biggest annual sporting event”, the Tour de France. Since , France is famous for its 24 Hours of Le Mans sports car endurance race. French martial arts include Savate and Fencing. France has a close association with the Modern Olympic Games; it was a French aristocrat, Baron Pierre de Coubertin , who suggested the Games’ revival, at the end of the 19th century.

Both the national football team and the national rugby union team are nicknamed ” Les Bleus ” in reference to the team’s shirt colour as well as the national French tricolour flag.

Football is the most popular sport in France, with over 1,, registered players and over 18, registered clubs. The top national football club competition is Ligue 1. It is the premier clay court tennis championship event in the world and the second of four annual Grand Slam tournaments.

Rugby union is popular, particularly in Paris and the southwest of France. From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. Country in Western Europe.

For other uses, see France disambiguation. For other uses, see Lafrance. For previous republics, see French Republics. This article may be too long to read and navigate comfortably. Its current readable prose size is kilobytes. Please consider splitting content into sub-articles, condensing it, or adding subheadings. Please discuss this issue on the article’s talk page.

June Emblem [I]. France on the globe centred on Europe. Metropolitan France European part of France in Europe. France and its overseas territories in the world. Source gives area of metropolitan France as , km 2 , sq mi and lists overseas regions separately, whose areas sum to 89, km 2 34, sq mi. Adding these give the total shown here for the entire French Republic. The CIA reports the total as , km 2 , sq mi. Main article: Name of France. Main article: History of France. For a chronological guide, see Timeline of French history.

Main article: Prehistory of France. Main articles: Gaul , Celts , and Roman Gaul. Main articles: Francia , Merovingian dynasty , and Carolingian dynasty. See also: France in the 19th century and France in the 20th century. Main article: History of France to present. Main article: Geography of France.

See also: List of national parks of France and Regional natural parks of France. Main article: Administrative divisions of France. Hauts-de- France. Grand Est. Centre- Val de Loire. Pays de la Loire. Nouvelle- Aquitaine. French Guiana. United Kingdom. Bay of Biscay. Ligurian Sea. Mediterranean Sea.

Main article: Politics of France. Main article: Law of France. Main article: Foreign relations of France. Main article: French Armed Forces. Bastille Day in Paris. National Gendarmerie. Combined Arms School. See also: Taxation in France. Main article: Economy of France. Main article: Tourism in France. Further information: Energy in France.

Main article: Transport in France. Main articles: Science and technology in France and List of French inventions and discoveries. Main articles: Demographics of France and French people.

See also: Urban area France and Urban unit. Largest cities or towns in France census. Main articles: French language , Languages of France , and Organisation internationale de la Francophonie. Native language. Administrative language. Secondary or non-official language. Francophone minorities. Main article: Religion in France.

Main article: Health in France. Main article: Education in France. Main article: Culture of France. Main article: French art. Main article: French architecture. Main article: French literature. Main article: French philosophy. Main article: Music of France. Main article: Cinema of France. Main article: French fashion. Main article: Telecommunications in France. Main article: French cuisine. Main article: Sport in France. Europe portal France portal. For other symbols, see National symbols of France.

France also uses. All five are considered integral parts of the French Republic. Archived from the original on 16 October The World Factbook. Archived from the original on 31 January Retrieved 1 November This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.

Retrieved 11 October Archived from the original on 28 August Retrieved 20 July International Monetary Fund. Retrieved 25 February Retrieved 21 June United Nations Development Programme. Retrieved 15 December Retrieved 9 October Retrieved 27 November Lexington Books. ISBN Palmer; Joel Colton A History of the Modern World 5th ed. France Credit Suisse. October Archived PDF from the original on 9 November Retrieved 27 October World Health Organization.

Retrieved 16 July Retrieved 27 April Retrieved 28 October Archived from the original on 24 August Retrieved 17 July American Heritage Dictionary. Webster’s Third New International Dictionary. And so on. Online Etymology Dictionary. In Paul Veyne ed. Belknap Press. OCLC The Complete Encyclopedia of Arms and Weapons: the most comprehensive reference work ever published on arms and armor from prehistoric times to the present with over 1, illustrations.

Retrieved 5 July Longman Pronunciation Dictionary 3rd ed. English in Wales: Diversity, Conflict, and Change. Multilingual Matters Ltd.

Cambridge University Press. Retrieved 23 January A history of ancient Greece. Archived from the original on 22 July Archived from the original on 6 February Retrieved 14 December Archived from the original on 16 July Archived from the original on 6 August Retrieved 21 July The Story of French.

Martin’s Press. New York. Archived from the original on 20 January University of California Press. Historical dynamics: why states rise and fall. Princeton University Press. Tudors: The Illustrated History.

Amberley Publishing Limited. Evans, D. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, Archived from the original on 21 July Archived from the original PDF on 25 July Veen Media, Amsterdam, Translation of: The French Revolution. Faith, Desire, and Politics. Chapter 5 p. Oxford: Oxford University Press, Kingston University. Archived from the original PDF on 17 January Thackeray Events that Changed the World in the Nineteenth Century.

History Today. Yale University Press. BBC News. Tucker, Priscilla Mary Roberts Archived from the original on 16 April Archived from the original on 6 December Retrieved 16 October Archived from the original PDF on 9 November Retrieved 14 October The New York Times. International Affairs.

JSTOR University of Sunderland. Archived from the original on 23 May Encyclopedia of Human Rights. Oxford University Press. Retrieved 13 January From their experience, they are able to work on the most difficult assignments. The following are some of the course we offer assignment help in;. In case you cannot find your course of study on the list above you can search it on the order form or chat with one of our online agents for assistance. We will take care of all your assignment needs We are a leading online assignment help service provider.

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Our sample essays Categories. All samples. Journal article. Response essay. Analysis any type. Discussion Essay. Argumentative essays. Annotated bibliography. Case study. Research proposal. Term paper. The SDK includes a comprehensive set of development tools, [] including a debugger , software libraries , a handset emulator based on QEMU , documentation, sample code, and tutorials. Android has a growing selection of third-party applications, which can be acquired by users by downloading and installing the application’s APK Android application package file, or by downloading them using an application store program that allows users to install, update, and remove applications from their devices.

Google Play Store is the primary application store installed on Android devices that comply with Google’s compatibility requirements and license the Google Mobile Services software.

Due to the open nature of Android, a number of third-party application marketplaces also exist for Android, either to provide a substitute for devices that are not allowed to ship with Google Play Store, provide applications that cannot be offered on Google Play Store due to policy violations, or for other reasons.

F-Droid , another alternative marketplace, seeks to only provide applications that are distributed under free and open source licenses. In October , Google removed several Android applications from Play Store , as they were identified breaching its data collection rules.

The storage of Android devices can be expanded using secondary devices such as SD cards. Android recognizes two types of secondary storage: portable storage which is used by default , and adoptable storage.

Portable storage is treated as an external storage device. Adoptable storage, introduced on Android 6. This has the disadvantage of preventing the memory card from being used with another device unless it is reformatted. Android 4. Apps are required to use the SAF to access any other part of the filesystem.

Since Android devices are usually battery-powered, Android is designed to manage processes to keep power consumption at a minimum. When an application is not in use the system suspends its operation so that, while available for immediate use rather than closed, it does not use battery power or CPU resources. Some settings for use by developers for debugging and power users are located in a “Developer options” sub menu, such as the ability to highlight updating parts of the display, show an overlay with the current status of the touch screen, show touching spots for possible use in screencasting , notify the user of unresponsive background processes with the option to end them “Show all ANRs”, i.

Developer options are initially hidden since Android 4. Hiding developers options again requires deleting user data for the “Settings” app, possibly resetting some other preferences. While gaining support for bit platforms, Android was first made to run on bit x86 and then on ARM Since Android 5.

Requirements for the minimum amount of RAM for devices running Android 7. Android devices incorporate many optional hardware components, including still or video cameras, GPS , orientation sensors , dedicated gaming controls, accelerometers , gyroscopes , barometers, magnetometers , proximity sensors , pressure sensors , thermometers, and touchscreens.

Some hardware components are not required, but became standard in certain classes of devices, such as smartphones, and additional requirements apply if they are present. Some other hardware was initially required, but those requirements have been relaxed or eliminated altogether. For example, as Android was developed initially as a phone OS, hardware such as microphones were required, while over time the phone function became optional. In addition to running on smartphones and tablets, several vendors run Android natively on regular PC hardware with a keyboard and mouse.

Android is developed by Google until the latest changes and updates are ready to be released, at which point the source code is made available to the Android Open Source Project AOSP , [] an open source initiative led by Google.

The source code is, in turn, customized by original equipment manufacturers OEMs to run on their hardware. Google provides annual [] Android releases, both for factory installation in new devices, and for over-the-air updates to existing devices. The extensive variation of hardware [] in Android devices has caused significant delays for software upgrades and security patches.

Each upgrade has had to be specifically tailored, a time- and resource-consuming process. The lack of after-sale support from manufacturers and carriers has been widely criticized by consumer groups and the technology media.

In , Google began de-coupling certain aspects of the operating system particularly its central applications so they could be updated through the Google Play store independently of the OS. One of those components, Google Play Services , is a closed-source system-level process providing APIs for Google services, installed automatically on nearly all devices running Android 2. With these changes, Google can add new system functions and update apps without having to distribute an upgrade to the operating system itself.

HTC ‘s then-executive Jason Mackenzie called monthly security updates “unrealistic” in , and Google was trying to persuade carriers to exclude security patches from the full testing procedures. In May , Bloomberg Businessweek reported that Google was making efforts to keep Android more up-to-date, including accelerated rates of security updates, rolling out technological workarounds, reducing requirements for phone testing, and ranking phone makers in an attempt to “shame” them into better behavior.

As stated by Bloomberg : “As smartphones get more capable, complex and hackable, having the latest software work closely with the hardware is increasingly important”.

Hiroshi Lockheimer, the Android lead, admitted that “It’s not an ideal situation”, further commenting that the lack of updates is “the weakest link on security on Android”.

Wireless carriers were described in the report as the “most challenging discussions”, due to their slow approval time while testing on their networks, despite some carriers, including Verizon Wireless and Sprint Corporation , already shortening their approval times. In a further effort for persuasion, Google shared a list of top phone makers measured by updated devices with its Android partners, and is considering making the list public.

In May , with the announcement of Android 8. Project Treble separates the vendor implementation device-specific, lower-level software written by silicon manufacturers from the Android OS framework via a new “vendor interface”.

In Android 7. With Treble, the new stable vendor interface provides access to the hardware-specific parts of Android, enabling device makers to deliver new Android releases simply by updating the Android OS framework, “without any additional work required from the silicon manufacturers. In September , Google’s Project Treble team revealed that, as part of their efforts to improve the security lifecycle of Android devices, Google had managed to get the Linux Foundation to agree to extend the support lifecycle of the Linux Long-Term Support LTS kernel branch from the 2 years that it has historically lasted to 6 years for future versions of the LTS kernel, starting with Linux kernel 4.

In May , with the announcement of Android 10 , Google introduced Project Mainline to simplify and expedite delivery of updates to the Android ecosystem. As a result, important security and performance improvements that previously needed to be part of full OS updates can be downloaded and installed as easily as an app update. Google reported rolling out new amendments in Android 12 aimed at making the use of third-party application stores easier.

This announcement rectified the concerns reported regarding the development of Android apps, including a fight over an alternative in-app payment system and difficulties faced by businesses moving online because of COVID Android’s kernel is based on the Linux kernel ‘s long-term support LTS branches.

As of [update] , Android uses versions 4. Android’s variant of the Linux kernel has further architectural changes that are implemented by Google outside the typical Linux kernel development cycle, such as the inclusion of components like device trees, ashmem, ION, and different out of memory OOM handling.

In August , Linus Torvalds said that “eventually Android and Linux would come back to a common kernel, but it will probably not be for four to five years”. The interfaces are the same but the upstream Linux implementation allows for two different suspend modes: to memory the traditional suspend that Android uses , and to disk hibernate, as it is known on the desktop. Android is a Linux distribution according to the Linux Foundation , [] Google’s open-source chief Chris DiBona , [] and several journalists.

With the release of Android Oreo in , Google began to require that devices shipped with new SoCs had Linux kernel version 4. Existing devices upgraded to Oreo, and new products launched with older SoCs, were exempt from this rule. However, root access can be obtained by exploiting security flaws in Android, which is used frequently by the open-source community to enhance the capabilities and customizability of their devices, but also by malicious parties to install viruses and malware.

The unlocking process resets the system to factory state , erasing all user data. On top of the Linux kernel, there are the middleware , libraries and APIs written in C , and application software running on an application framework which includes Java -compatible libraries. Development of the Linux kernel continues independently of Android’s other source code projects. In Android 4. Following the trace-based JIT principle, in addition to interpreting the majority of application code, Dalvik performs the compilation and native execution of select frequently executed code segments “traces” each time an application is launched.

Bionic itself has been designed with several major features specific to the Linux kernel. At the same time, Bionic is licensed under the terms of the BSD licence , which Google finds more suitable for the Android’s overall licensing model.

Android does not have a native X Window System by default, nor does it support the full set of standard GNU libraries. In current versions of Android, ” Toybox “, a collection of command-line utilities mostly for use by apps, as Android does not provide a command-line interface by default , is used since the release of Marshmallow replacing a similar “Toolbox” collection found in previous Android versions. Android’s source code is released by Google under an open source license , and its open nature has encouraged a large community of developers and enthusiasts to use the open-source code as a foundation for community-driven projects, which deliver updates to older devices, add new features for advanced users or bring Android to devices originally shipped with other operating systems.

See List of custom Android distributions. Historically, device manufacturers and mobile carriers have typically been unsupportive of third-party firmware development. Manufacturers express concern about improper functioning of devices running unofficial software and the support costs resulting from this.

As a result, technical obstacles including locked bootloaders and restricted access to root permissions are common in many devices. However, as community-developed software has grown more popular, and following a statement by the Librarian of Congress in the United States that permits the ” jailbreaking ” of mobile devices, [] manufacturers and carriers have softened their position regarding third party development, with some, including HTC , [] Motorola , [] Samsung [] [] and Sony , [] providing support and encouraging development.

As a result of this, over time the need to circumvent hardware restrictions to install unofficial firmware has lessened as an increasing number of devices are shipped with unlocked or unlockable bootloaders , similar to Nexus series of phones, although usually requiring that users waive their devices’ warranties to do so. Internally, Android identifies each supported device by its device codename , a short string, [] which may or may not be similar to the model name used in marketing the device.

For example, the device codename of the Pixel smartphone is sailfish. The device codename is usually not visible to the end user, but is important for determining compatibility with modified Android versions. It is sometimes also mentioned in articles discussing a device, because it allows to distinguish different hardware variants of a device, even if the manufacturer offers them under the same name.

The device codename is available to running applications under android. Research from security company Trend Micro lists premium service abuse as the most common type of Android malware, where text messages are sent from infected phones to premium-rate telephone numbers without the consent or even knowledge of the user. Other malware displays unwanted and intrusive advertisements on the device, or sends personal information to unauthorised third parties.

In , journalists and researchers reported the discovery of spyware , called Pegasus , developed and distributed by a private company which can and has been used to infect both iOS and Android smartphones often — partly via use of 0-day exploits — without the need for any user-interaction or significant clues to the user and then be used to exfiltrate data, track user locations, capture film through its camera, and activate the microphone at any time.

They are reportedly able to read almost all smartphone information, including SMS, location, emails, and notes. GCHQ has, according to The Guardian , a wiki -style guide of different apps and advertising networks, and the different data that can be siphoned from each. The documents revealed a further effort by the intelligence agencies to intercept Google Maps searches and queries submitted from Android and other smartphones to collect location information in bulk.

Leaked documents published by WikiLeaks, codenamed Vault 7 and dated from to , detail the capabilities of the Central Intelligence Agency CIA to perform electronic surveillance and cyber warfare , including the ability to compromise the operating systems of most smartphones including Android.

In August , Google announced that devices in the Google Nexus series would begin to receive monthly security patches. Google also wrote that “Nexus devices will continue to receive major updates for at least two years and security patches for the longer of three years from initial availability or 18 months from last sale of the device via the Google Store.

Google was starting from scratch with zero percent market share, so it was happy to give up control and give everyone a seat at the table in exchange for adoption.

As such, security has become a big issue. Android still uses a software update chain-of-command designed back when the Android ecosystem had zero devices to update, and it just doesn’t work”. And a bunch of broken promises”. They also wrote that “About half of devices in use at the end of had not received a platform security update in the previous year”, stating that their work would continue to focus on streamlining the security updates program for easier deployment by manufacturers.

Patches to bugs found in the core operating system often do not reach users of older and lower-priced devices. For example, Samsung has worked with General Dynamics through their Open Kernel Labs acquisition to rebuild Jelly Bean on top of their hardened microvisor for the “Knox” project. Android smartphones have the ability to report the location of Wi-Fi access points, encountered as phone users move around, to build databases containing the physical locations of hundreds of millions of such access points.

These databases form electronic maps to locate smartphones, allowing them to run apps like Foursquare , Google Latitude , Facebook Places , and to deliver location-based ads. In , Norwegian security firm Promon has unearthed a serious Android security hole which can be exploited to steal login credentials, access messages, and track location, which could be found in all versions of Android, including Android The vulnerability came by exploiting a bug in the multitasking system enabling a malicious app to overlay legitimate apps with fake login screens that users are not aware of when handing in security credentials.

Users can also be tricked into granting additional permissions to the malicious apps, which later enable them to perform various nefarious activities, including intercepting texts or calls and stealing banking credentials. Some of the preinstalled malware can commit ad fraud or even take over its host device.

In , the Which? This conclusion stemmed from the fact that no security updates were issued for the Android versions below 7. Google refused to comment on the watchdog’s speculations. On August 5, , Twitter published a blog urging its users to update their applications to the latest version with regards to a security concern that allowed others to access direct messages.

A hacker could easily use the “Android system permissions” to fetch the account credentials in order to do so. Twitter confirmed that updating the app will restrict such practices.

Android applications run in a sandbox , an isolated area of the system that does not have access to the rest of the system’s resources, unless access permissions are explicitly granted by the user when the application is installed, however this may not be possible for pre-installed apps. It is not possible, for example, to turn off the microphone access of the pre-installed camera app without disabling the camera completely.

This is valid also in Android versions 7 and 8. Since February , Google has used its Google Bouncer malware scanner to watch over and scan apps available in the Google Play store. Before installing an application, the Google Play store displays a list of the requirements an app needs to function. After reviewing these permissions, the user can choose to accept or refuse them, installing the application only if they accept.

An opt-in system is used instead, in which users are prompted to grant or deny individual permissions to an app when they are needed for the first time. Applications remember the grants, which can be revoked by the user at any time. Pre-installed apps, however, are not always part of this approach. In some cases it may not be possible to deny certain permissions to pre-installed apps, nor be possible to disable them.

The Google Play Services app cannot be uninstalled, nor disabled. Any force stop attempt, result in the app restarting itself. Permissions can still be revoked for those apps, though this might prevent them from working properly, and a warning is displayed to that effect. Nova wrote that “The Android operating system deals with software packages by sandboxing them; this does not allow applications to list the directory contents of other apps to keep the system safe.

By not allowing the antivirus to list the directories of other apps after installation, applications that show no inherent suspicious behavior when downloaded are cleared as safe. If then later on parts of the app are activated that turn out to be malicious, the antivirus will have no way to know since it is inside the app and out of the antivirus’ jurisdiction”.

The study by Fraunhofer AISEC, examining antivirus software from Avast , AVG , Bitdefender , ESET , F-Secure , Kaspersky , Lookout , McAfee formerly Intel Security , Norton , Sophos , and Trend Micro , revealed that “the tested antivirus apps do not provide protection against customized malware or targeted attacks”, and that “the tested antivirus apps were also not able to detect malware which is completely unknown to date but does not make any efforts to hide its malignity”.

In August , Google announced Android Device Manager renamed Find My Device in May , [] [] a service that allows users to remotely track, locate, and wipe their Android device, [] [] with an Android app for the service released in December.

On October 8, , Google announced new Google Play store requirements to combat over-sharing of potentially sensitive information, including call and text logs. The issue stems from the fact that many apps request permissions to access users’ personal information even if this information is not needed for the app to function and some users unquestionably grant these permissions.

Alternatively, a permission might be listed in the app manifest as required as opposed to optional and the app would not install unless user grants the permission; users can withdraw any, even required, permissions from any app in the device settings after app installation, but few users do this.

Google promised to work with developers and create exceptions if their apps require Phone or SMS permissions for “core app functionality”. The new policies enforcement started on January 6, , 90 days after policy announcement on October 8, The API level requirement might combat the practice of app developers bypassing some permission screens by specifying early Android versions that had a coarser permission model.

Dependence on proprietary Google Play Services and customizations added on top of the operating system by vendors who license Android from Google is causing privacy concerns. The source code for Android is open-source : it is developed in private by Google, with the source code released publicly when a new version of Android is released. Google publishes most of the code including network and telephony stacks under the non-copyleft Apache License version 2.

Associated Linux kernel changes are released under the copyleft GNU General Public License version 2, developed by the Open Handset Alliance , with the source code publicly available at all times. The reason, according to Andy Rubin in an official Android blog post, was because Honeycomb was rushed for production of the Motorola Xoom , [] and they did not want third parties creating a “really bad user experience” by attempting to put onto smartphones a version of Android intended for tablets.

Only the base Android operating system including some applications is open-source software, whereas most Android devices ship with a substantial amount of proprietary software, such as Google Mobile Services , which includes applications such as Google Play Store , Google Search, and Google Play Services — a software layer that provides APIs for the integration with Google-provided services, among others. These applications must be licensed from Google by device makers, and can only be shipped on devices which meet its compatibility guidelines and other requirements.

Richard Stallman and the Free Software Foundation have been critical of Android and have recommended the usage of alternatives such as Replicant , because drivers and firmware vital for the proper functioning of Android devices are usually proprietary, and because the Google Play Store application can forcibly install or uninstall applications and, as a result, invite non-free software.

In both cases, the use of closed-source software causes the system to become vulnerable to backdoors. It has been argued that because developers are often required to purchase the Google-branded Android license, this has turned the theoretically open system into a freemium service. Google licenses their Google Mobile Services software, along with the Android trademarks, only to hardware manufacturers for devices that meet Google’s compatibility standards specified in the Android Compatibility Program document.

In , Google also began to require that all Android devices which license the Google Mobile Services software display a prominent “Powered by Android” logo on their boot screens.

Moreover, open-source variants of some applications also exclude functions that are present in their non-free versions. Apps that do not use Google components would also be at a functional disadvantage, as they can only use APIs contained within the OS itself.

In turn, third-party apps may have dependencies on Google Play Services. Alibaba Group defended the allegations, arguing that the OS was a distinct platform from Android primarily using HTML5 apps , but incorporated portions of Android’s platform to allow backwards compatibility with third-party Android software. Indeed, the devices did ship with an application store which offered Android apps; however, the majority of them were pirated.

Android received a lukewarm reaction when it was unveiled in Although analysts were impressed with the respected technology companies that had partnered with Google to form the Open Handset Alliance, it was unclear whether mobile phone manufacturers would be willing to replace their existing operating systems with Android.

Since then Android has grown to become the most widely used smartphone operating system [] [] and “one of the fastest mobile experiences available”. As a result, it has been described by technology website Ars Technica as “practically the default operating system for launching new hardware” for companies without their own mobile platforms.

These have been cited as among the main advantages of Android phones over others. Despite Android’s popularity, including an activation rate three times that of iOS, there have been reports that Google has not been able to leverage their other products and web services successfully to turn Android into the money maker that analysts had expected.

Android has suffered from “fragmentation”, [] a situation where the variety of Android devices, in terms of both hardware variations and differences in the software running on them, makes the task of developing applications that work consistently across the ecosystem harder than rival platforms such as iOS where hardware and software varies less. For example, according to data from OpenSignal in July , there were 11, models of Android devices, numerous screen sizes and eight Android OS versions simultaneously in use, while the large majority of iOS users have upgraded to the latest iteration of that OS.

They maintain this forces Android developers to write for the “lowest common denominator” to reach as many users as possible, who have too little incentive to make use of the latest hardware or software features only available on a smaller percentage of devices.

Research company Canalys estimated in the second quarter of , that Android had a 2. By the third quarter of , Gartner estimated that more than half In July , Google said that , Android devices were being activated every day, [] up from , per day in May, [] and more than million devices had been activated [] with 4. Android market share varies by location.

In April , Android had 1. As of August , [update] the Google Play store had over 3 million Android applications published, [10] [] and as of May , [update] apps had been downloaded more than 65 billion times.

Android devices account for more than half of smartphone sales in most markets, including the US, while “only in Japan was Apple on top” September—November numbers. Three billion Android smartphones were estimated to be sold by the end of including previous years.

According to Gartner research company, Android-based devices outsold all contenders, every year since According to StatCounter , which tracks only the use for browsing the web, Android is the most popular mobile operating system since August According to StatCounter, Android is most used on mobile in all African countries, and it stated “mobile usage has already overtaken desktop in several countries including India, South Africa and Saudi Arabia”, [] with virtually all countries in Africa having done so already except for seven countries, including Egypt , such as Ethiopia and Kenya in which mobile including tablets usage is at While Android phones in the Western world almost always include Google’s proprietary code such as Google Play in the otherwise open-source operating system, Google’s proprietary code and trademark is increasingly not used in emerging markets; “The growth of AOSP Android devices goes way beyond just China [..

According to a January Gartner report, “Android surpassed a billion shipments of devices in , and will continue to grow at a double-digit pace in , with a 26 percent increase year over year. Gartner expected the whole mobile phone market to “reach two billion units in “, including Android. According to a Statistica ‘s estimate, Android smartphones had an installed base of 1. In the second quarter of , Android’s share of the global smartphone shipment market was According to an April StatCounter report, Android overtook Microsoft Windows to become the most popular operating system for total Internet usage.

In September , Google announced that Android had 1. Despite its success on smartphones, initially Android tablet adoption was slow, [] then later caught up with the iPad, in most countries. One of the main causes was the chicken or the egg situation where consumers were hesitant to buy an Android tablet due to a lack of high quality tablet applications, but developers were hesitant to spend time and resources developing tablet applications until there was a significant market for them. Due to the lack of Android tablet-specific applications in , early Android tablets had to make do with existing smartphone applications that were ill-suited to larger screen sizes, whereas the dominance of Apple’s iPad was reinforced by the large number of tablet-specific iOS applications.

This approach, such as with the Dell Streak , failed to gain market traction with consumers as well as damaging the early reputation of Android tablets. An exception was the Amazon Kindle Fire , which relied upon lower pricing as well as access to Amazon’s ecosystem of applications and content. This began to change in , with the release of the affordable Nexus 7 and a push by Google for developers to write better tablet applications.

As of the end of , over There are countries on all continents where Android tablets are the majority, for example, Mexico. It can now be as integral to your mobile portfolio as Apple ‘s iOS devices are”.

Android 11 is, and was just before the release of Android 12, the most popular Android version, on both smartphones and tablets. Usage of Android 10 and newer, i. Android 12 is most popular in a few countries including the United States, [] but Android 11 is most used in most countries, including India, while in many others, including China, Android 10 is the most popular version.

O, until recently supported, at The usage share varies a lot by country: e. Android 9. At the same time In general, paid Android applications can easily be pirated. In , Google released a tool for validating authorized purchases for use within apps, but developers complained that this was insufficient and trivial to crack. Google responded that the tool, especially its initial release, was intended as a sample framework for developers to modify and build upon depending on their needs, not as a finished piracy solution.

The success of Android has made it a target for patent and copyright litigation between technology companies, both Android and Android phone manufacturers having been involved in numerous patent lawsuits and other legal challenges. On August 12, , Oracle sued Google over claimed infringement of copyrights and patents related to the Java programming language. They said that Android’s Java runtime environment is based on Apache Harmony , a clean room implementation of the Java class libraries, and an independently developed virtual machine called Dalvik.

In December , Google announced that the next major release of Android Android Nougat would switch to OpenJDK , which is the official open-source implementation of the Java platform, instead of using the now-discontinued Apache Harmony project as its runtime.

Code reflecting this change was also posted to the AOSP source repository. The majority opinion began with the assumption that the APIs may be copyrightable, and thus proceeded with a review of the factors that contributed to fair use.

In , FairSearch , a lobbying organization supported by Microsoft , Oracle and others, filed a complaint regarding Android with the European Commission , alleging that its free-of-charge distribution model constituted anti-competitive predatory pricing.

On October 16, , Google announced that it would change its distribution model for Google Mobile Services in the EU, since part of its revenues streams for Android which came through use of Google Search and Chrome were now prohibited by the EU’s ruling. Google Search will be licensed separately, with an option to include Google Chrome at no additional cost atop Search. European OEMs can bundle third-party alternatives on phones and devices sold to customers, if they so choose.

OEMs will no longer be barred from selling any device running incompatible versions of Android in Europe. In addition to lawsuits against Google directly, various proxy wars have been waged against Android indirectly by targeting manufacturers of Android devices, with the effect of discouraging manufacturers from adopting the platform by increasing the costs of bringing an Android device to market.

Google has publicly expressed its frustration for the current patent landscape in the United States, accusing Apple, Oracle and Microsoft of trying to take down Android through patent litigation, rather than innovating and competing with better products and services.

Google has developed several variations of Android for specific use cases, including Android Wear, later renamed Wear OS , for wearable devices such as wrist watches, [] [] Android TV for televisions, [] [] Android Things for smart or Internet of things devices and Android Automotive for cars. The open and customizable nature of Android allows device makers to use it on other electronics as well, including laptops, netbooks , [] [] and desktop computers, [] cameras, [] headphones, [] home automation systems, game consoles, [] media players, [] satellites, [] routers , [] printers , [] payment terminals , [] automated teller machines , [] and robots.

In , Google demonstrated “Android Home”, a home automation technology which uses Android to control a range of household devices including light switches, power sockets and thermostats. Google, he said, was thinking more ambitiously and the intention was to use their position as a cloud services provider to bring Google products into customers’ homes.

Parrot unveiled an Android-based car stereo system known as Asteroid in , [] followed by a successor, the touchscreen-based Asteroid Smart, in Android comes preinstalled on a few laptops a similar functionality of running Android applications is also available in Google’s Chrome OS and can also be installed on personal computers by end users.

In December , one reviewer commented that Android’s notification system is “vastly more complete and robust than in most environments” and that Android is “absolutely usable” as one’s primary desktop operating system. The software is available for developers, and was released in

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Android is a mobile operating system based on a modified version of the Linux kernel and other open source software, designed primarily for touchscreen mobile devices such as smartphones and tablets. Android is developed by a consortium of developers known as the Open Handset Alliance and commercially sponsored by Google.

Most versions of Android are proprietary. When Android is installed on devices, ability to modify the otherwise FOSS software is usually restricted, either by not providing the corresponding source code or preventing reinstallation through technical measures, rendering the installed version proprietary. Most Android devices ship with additional chief architect x2 product key free software pre-installed, [4] most notably Google Mobile Services GMS [5] which includes core apps such as Google Chromethe digital distribution platform Google Playand associated Google Play Services development platform.

However, the “Android” name and logo are trademarks of Google which imposes standards to restrict the use of Android branding by “uncertified” devices outside their ecosystem. The source code has been used to develop variants of Android on a range of other electronics, such as game consolesdigital camerasportable media playersChief architect x2 product key freeeach with a specialized user interface.

Android has been the best-selling OS worldwide on smartphones since and on tablets since As of May [update]it has over three billion monthly active usersthe largest installed base of any operating system, [9] chief architect x2 product key free as of January [update]the Google Play Store features over 3 million apps.

Android Inc. Rubin had difficulty attracting investors early on, and Android was facing eviction from its office space. Perlman refused a stake in привожу ссылку company, and has stated “I did it because I believed in the thing, and I wanted to help Andy.

Google marketed the platform to handset makers and carriers on the promise of providing a flexible, upgradeable system. Увидеть больше about Google’s intention to enter the mobile communications market continued to build through December On November 5,the Open Handset Alliancea consortium of technology companies including Google, device manufacturers such as HTCMotorola and Samsungwireless carriers such as Sprint and T-Mobileand chipset makers such as Qualcomm and Texas Instrumentsunveiled itself, with a goal to develop “the first truly open and comprehensive platform for mobile devices”.

In SeptemberInformationWeek covered an Evalueserve study reporting that Google had filed several patent applications in the area of mobile telephony. SinceAndroid has seen numerous updates which have incrementally improved the operating system, adding new features and fixing bugs in previous releases.

Each major release is named in alphabetical order after a dessert or sugary treat, with the first few Android versions being called ” Cupcake adobe photoshop premiere pro cs6 free, ” Donut “, ” Eclair “, and ” Froyo “, in that order. During its announcement chief architect x2 product key free Android KitKat inGoogle explained that “Since these devices make our lives so sweet, each Android version is named after a dessert”, although a Google spokesperson told CNN in an interview that “It’s kind посетить страницу источник like an internal team thing, and we prefer to be a little bit—how should I say—a bit inscrutable in the matter, I’ll say”.

InGoogle launched its Nexus series of devices, a lineup in which Google partnered with different device manufacturers chief architect x2 product key free produce new devices and introduce new Android versions.

The series was described as having “played a pivotal role in Android’s history by introducing new software iterations and hardware standards across the board”, and became known for its ” bloat-free ” software with “timely He жмите Google in August to join Chinese phone maker Xiaomi.

On Android 4. Writing access has been reinstated with Android 5 Lollipop through the backwards-incompatible Google Storage Access Framework interface. In JuneGoogle announced Android Onea set of “hardware reference models” that would “allow [device makers] to easily create high-quality phones at low costs”, designed for consumers in developing countries. In Maythe operating system became entangled chief architect x2 product key free the trade war between China and the United States involving Huaweiwhich, like many other tech firms, had become dependent on access to the Android platform.

On August 22,it was announced that Android “Q” would chief architect x2 product key free be branded as Android 10, ending the historic practice of naming major versions after desserts. Google stated that these names were not “inclusive” to international users due either to the aforementioned foods not being internationally known, or being difficult to pronounce in some languages.

Android’s default user interface is mainly based on direct manipulationusing touch inputs that loosely correspond to real-world actions, like swiping, tapping, pinching, and reverse pinching to manipulate on-screen objects, along with a virtual keyboard. Internal hardware, such as accelerometersgyroscopes and proximity sensors are used by some applications to respond to additional user actions, for example adjusting the screen from portrait to landscape depending on how the device is oriented, [80] or allowing the user to steer a vehicle in a racing game by rotating the device, simulating control of a steering wheel.

Android devices boot to the home screenthe primary navigation and information “hub” on Android devices, analogous to the desktop found on personal computers. Android home screens are typically made up of app chief architect x2 product key free and widgets ; app icons launch the associated app, whereas widgets display live, auto-updating content, such as a weather forecastthe user’s email inbox, or a news ticker directly on the home screen.

Along the top of the screen is a status bar, showing information about the device and its connectivity. This status bar can be pulled swiped down from to reveal a notification screen where apps display important information or updates, as well as quick access to system controls and toggles such as display brightness, connectivity settings WiFiBluetoothcellular dataaudio mode, and flashlight. Notifications are “short, timely, and relevant information about your app when it’s not in use”, and when tapped, users are directed to a screen inside the app ableton live 9 standard upgrade to 10 suite free download to the notification.

An “All Apps” screen lists all installed applications, with chief architect x2 product key free ability for users to drag an app from the list onto the home screen. The app list may be accessed using a gesture or a button, depending on the Android version. A “Recents” screen, also known as “Overview”, lets users switch between recently used apps. The recent list may appear side-by-side or overlapping, depending on the Android version and manufacturer. Many early Android OS smartphones were equipped with a dedicated search button for quick access to a web search engine and individual apps’ internal search feature.

More recent devices typically allow the former through a long press or swipe away from the home button. The dedicated option key, also known as menu key, and its on-screen simulation, is no longer supported since Android version Google recommends mobile application developers to locate menus within the user interface.

Depending on device, its long press may simulate a menu button press or engage split screen view, the latter of which is the default behaviour since stock Android version 7. Native support for split screen view has been added in stock Android version 7. The earliest vendor-customized Android-based smartphones known to have featured a split-screen view mode are the Samsung Galaxy S3 and Note 2the former of which received this feature with the premium suite upgrade delivered in TouchWiz with Android 4.

When connecting or disconnecting charging power and when shortly actuating the power button or home button, all while the device is powered off, a visual battery meter whose appearance varies among vendors appears on the screen, allowing the user to quickly assess the charge status of a powered-off without having to boot it up first.

Some display the battery percentage. Since stock Android version 12, released earlysynchronous vibration can be set to complement audio. Applications ” apps “which extend the functionality of devices and must be bit []are written using the Android software development kit SDK [] and, often, Kotlin programming language, which replaced Java as Google’s preferred language for Android app development in May[] and was originally announced in May The SDK includes a comprehensive set of development tools, [] including a debuggersoftware librariesa handset emulator based on QEMUdocumentation, sample code, and tutorials.

Android has a growing selection of third-party applications, which can be acquired by users by downloading and installing the application’s APK Android application package file, or by downloading them using an application store program that allows users to install, update, and remove applications from their devices.

Google Play Store is the primary application store installed on Android devices that comply with Google’s compatibility requirements and license the Google Mobile Services software.

Due to the open nature of Android, a number of third-party application marketplaces also exist for Android, either to provide a substitute for devices that are not allowed to ship with Google Play Store, provide applications that chief architect x2 product key free be offered on Google Play Store посмотреть больше to policy violations, or for other reasons.

F-Droidanother alternative marketplace, seeks to only provide applications that are distributed under free and open source licenses. In OctoberGoogle removed several Android applications from Play Storeas they were identified breaching its data collection rules.

The storage of Android devices can be expanded using secondary devices such as SD cards. Android recognizes two types of secondary storage: portable storage which is used by defaultand adoptable storage. Portable storage is treated as an external storage device. Adoptable storage, introduced on Android 6. This has the disadvantage of preventing the memory card from being used with another device unless it is reformatted. Android 4. Apps are required to use the SAF to access any other part of the filesystem.

Since Android devices are usually battery-powered, Android is больше информации to manage processes to keep power consumption at a minimum. When an application is not in use the system suspends its operation so that, while available for immediate use rather than closed, it does not use battery power or CPU resources.

Some settings for use by developers for debugging and power users are located in a “Developer options” sub menu, such as the ability to highlight updating parts of the display, show an overlay with the current status of the touch screen, show touching spots for possible use in screencastingnotify the user of unresponsive background processes with the option to end them “Show all ANRs”, i.

Developer options are initially hidden since Android 4. Hiding developers options chief architect x2 product key free requires deleting user data for the “Settings” app, possibly resetting some other preferences. While gaining support for bit platforms, Android was first made to run on bit x86 and then on ARM Since Android 5.

Requirements for the minimum amount of RAM for devices running Android 7. Android devices incorporate many optional hardware components, including still or video cameras, GPSorientation sensorsdedicated gaming controls, accelerometersgyroscopesbarometers, magnetometersproximity sensorspressure sensorsthermometers, and touchscreens.

Some hardware components are not required, but became standard in certain classes of devices, such as smartphones, and additional requirements apply if they are present. Some other hardware was initially required, but those requirements have been relaxed or eliminated altogether.

For example, as Android was developed initially as a phone OS, hardware such as chief architect x2 product key free were required, while нажмите для продолжения time the phone function became optional.

In addition to running on smartphones and tablets, several vendors run Android natively on regular PC hardware with a keyboard and mouse. Android is developed by Google until the latest changes and updates are ready to be released, at which point the source code is made available to the Android Open Source Project AOSP[] an open source initiative led by Google. The source code is, in turn, customized by original equipment manufacturers OEMs to run on their hardware.

Google provides annual [] Android releases, both for factory installation in new devices, and for over-the-air updates to existing devices. The extensive variation of hardware [] in Android chief architect x2 product key free has caused significant delays for software upgrades and security patches.

Each upgrade has had to be specifically tailored, a time- and resource-consuming process. The lack of after-sale support from manufacturers and carriers has been widely criticized by consumer groups and the technology media.

InGoogle began de-coupling certain aspects of the operating system particularly its central applications so they could be updated through the Google Play store independently of the OS. One of those components, Chief architect x2 product key free Play Servicesis a closed-source system-level process providing APIs for Google services, installed automatically on nearly all devices running Chief architect x2 product key free 2.

With these changes, Google can add new system functions and update apps without having to distribute an upgrade to the operating system itself. HTC ‘s then-executive Jason Mackenzie called monthly security updates “unrealistic” inand Google was trying to persuade carriers to exclude security patches from the full testing procedures.

In MayBloomberg Businessweek reported that Google was making efforts to keep Android more up-to-date, including accelerated rates of security updates, rolling out technological workarounds, reducing requirements for phone testing, and ranking phone makers in an attempt to “shame” them into better behavior.

As stated by Bloomberg : “As smartphones get more capable, complex and hackable, having the latest software work closely with the hardware is chief architect x2 product key free important”. Hiroshi Lockheimer, the Android lead, admitted that “It’s not an ideal situation”, chief architect x2 product key free commenting that chief architect x2 product key free lack of updates is “the weakest link on security on Android”.

Wireless carriers were described in the report as the “most challenging discussions”, due to their slow approval time while testing on their networks, despite some carriers, including Verizon Wireless and Sprint Corporationalready shortening their approval times.

In a further effort for persuasion, Google shared a list of top phone makers measured by updated devices with its Android partners, and is considering making the list public. In Maywith the announcement of Android 8. Project Treble separates the vendor implementation device-specific, lower-level software written by silicon manufacturers from the Android OS framework via a new “vendor interface”.

In Android 7. With Treble, the new stable vendor interface provides access to the chief architect x2 product key free parts of Android, enabling device makers to deliver new Android releases simply by updating the Android OS chief architect x2 product key free, “without any additional work required from the silicon manufacturers.

In SeptemberGoogle’s Project Treble team revealed that, as part of their efforts to improve the security lifecycle of Android devices, Google had managed to get the Linux Foundation to agree to extend the support lifecycle of the Linux Long-Term Support LTS kernel branch from the 2 years that it has historically lasted to 6 years for future versions of the LTS kernel, starting with Linux kernel 4.

In Maywith the announcement of Android 10Google introduced Project Mainline to simplify and expedite читать больше of updates to the Android ecosystem. As a result, important security and performance improvements that previously needed to be part of full OS updates can be downloaded and installed as easily as an app update.

Google reported rolling out new amendments in Android 12 aimed at making the use of third-party application stores easier.

Due to its several coastal territories, France has the largest exclusive economic zone in the world. Its eighteen integral regions five of which are overseas span a combined area of , km 2 , sq mi and over 67 million people as of May [update].

Inhabited since the Palaeolithic era, the territory of Metropolitan France was settled by Celtic tribes known as Gauls during the Iron Age. Rome annexed the area in 51 BC, leading to a distinct Gallo-Roman culture that laid the foundation of the French language.

In the High Middle Ages , France was a powerful but highly decentralised feudal kingdom. Philip II successfully strengthened royal power and defeated his rivals to double the size of the crown lands ; by the end of his reign, France had emerged as the most powerful state in Europe. From the midth to the midth century, France was plunged into a series of dynastic conflicts involving England , collectively known as the Hundred Years’ War , and a distinct French identity emerged as a result.

The French Renaissance saw art and culture flourish, conflict with the House of Habsburg , and the establishment of a global colonial empire , which by the 20th century would become the second-largest in the world. France reached its political and military zenith in the early 19th century under Napoleon Bonaparte, subjugating much of continental Europe and establishing the First French Empire.

The collapse of the empire initiated a period of relative decline, in which France endured a tumultuous succession of governments until the founding of the French Third Republic during the Franco-Prussian War in France was one of the major participants of World War I , from which it emerged victorious at great human and economic cost.

Following liberation in , the short-lived Fourth Republic was established and later dissolved in the course of the Algerian War. The current Fifth Republic was formed in by Charles de Gaulle. Algeria and most French colonies became independent in the s, with the majority retaining close economic and military ties with France.

France retains its centuries-long status as a global centre of art , science and philosophy. Originally applied to the whole Frankish Empire , the name France comes from the Latin Francia , or “realm of the Franks “. The oldest traces of human life in what is now France date from approximately 1. Early hominids led a nomadic hunter-gatherer life. At the end of the last glacial period 10, BC , the climate became milder; [31] from approximately 7, BC, this part of Western Europe entered the Neolithic era and its inhabitants became sedentary.

After strong demographic and agricultural development between the 4th and 3rd millennia, metallurgy appeared at the end of the 3rd millennium, initially working gold, copper and bronze, as well as later iron.

This makes it France’s oldest city. The borders of modern France roughly correspond to ancient Gaul, which was inhabited by Celtic Gauls. Gaul was then a prosperous country, of which the southernmost part was heavily subject to Greek and Roman cultural and economic influences.

Gaul was divided by Augustus into Roman provinces. The Gauls mixed with Roman settlers and eventually adopted Roman culture and Roman speech Latin , from which the French language evolved. The Roman polytheism merged with the Gallic paganism into the same syncretism. From the s to the s AD, Roman Gaul suffered a serious crisis with its fortified borders being attacked on several occasions by barbarians.

Subsequently, Christians, who had been persecuted until then, increased rapidly across the entire Roman Empire. At the end of the Antiquity period, ancient Gaul was divided into several Germanic kingdoms and a remaining Gallo-Roman territory, known as the Kingdom of Syagrius. Simultaneously, Celtic Britons , fleeing the Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain , settled the western part of Armorica. As a result, the Armorican peninsula was renamed Brittany , Celtic culture was revived and independent petty kingdoms arose in this region.

The first leader to make himself king of all the Franks was Clovis I , who began his reign in , routing the last forces of the Roman governors of the province in Clovis claimed that he would be baptised a Christian in the event of his victory against the Visigoths , which was said to have guaranteed the battle.

Clovis regained the southwest from the Visigoths , was baptised in , and made himself master of what is now western Germany. The Germanic Franks adopted Romanic languages , except in northern Gaul where Roman settlements were less dense and where Germanic languages emerged. Clovis made Paris his capital and established the Merovingian dynasty , but his kingdom would not survive his death.

The last Merovingian kings lost power to their mayors of the palace head of household. One mayor of the palace, Charles Martel , defeated an Umayyad invasion of Gaul at the Battle of Tours and earned respect and power within the Frankish kingdoms.

His son, Pepin the Short , seized the crown of Francia from the weakened Merovingians and founded the Carolingian dynasty. Pepin’s son, Charlemagne , reunited the Frankish kingdoms and built a vast empire across Western and Central Europe.

Charlemagne’s son, Louis I Emperor — , kept the empire united; however, this Carolingian Empire would not survive his death. West Francia approximated the area occupied by—and was the precursor to—modern France. During the 9th and 10th centuries, continually threatened by Viking invasions , France became a very decentralised state: the nobility’s titles and lands became hereditary, and the authority of the king became more religious than secular and thus was less effective and constantly challenged by powerful noblemen.

Thus was established feudalism in France. Over time, some of the king’s vassals would grow so powerful that they often posed a threat to the king. For example, after the Battle of Hastings in , William the Conqueror added “King of England” to his titles, becoming both the vassal to as Duke of Normandy and the equal of as king of England the king of France, creating recurring tensions.

Later kings would expand their directly possessed domaine royal to cover over half of modern continental France by the 15th century, including most of the north, centre and west of France.

During this process, the royal authority became more and more assertive, centred on a hierarchically conceived society distinguishing nobility , clergy, and commoners. The French nobility played a prominent role in most Crusades to restore Christian access to the Holy Land.

French knights made up the bulk of the steady flow of reinforcements throughout the two-hundred-year span of the Crusades, in such a fashion that the Arabs uniformly referred to the crusaders as Franj caring little whether they really came from France. The latter, in particular, held numerous properties throughout France and by the 13th century were the principal bankers for the French crown, until Philip IV annihilated the order in The Albigensian Crusade was launched in to eliminate the heretical Cathars in the southwestern area of modern-day France.

In the end, the Cathars were exterminated and the autonomous County of Toulouse was annexed into the crown lands of France.

From the 11th century, the House of Plantagenet, the rulers of the County of Anjou , succeeded in establishing its dominion over the surrounding provinces of Maine and Touraine , then progressively built an “empire” that spanned from England to the Pyrenees and covering half of modern France. Tensions between the kingdom of France and the Plantagenet empire would last a hundred years, until Philip II of France conquered, between and , most of the continental possessions of the empire, leaving England and Aquitaine to the Plantagenets.

Charles IV the Fair died without an heir in During the reign of Philip of Valois , the French monarchy reached the height of its medieval power. With charismatic leaders, such as Joan of Arc and La Hire , strong French counterattacks won back most English continental territories.

Like the rest of Europe, France was struck by the Black Death due to which half of the 17 million population of France died. The French Renaissance saw a spectacular cultural development and the first standardisation of the French language, which would become the official language of France and the language of Europe’s aristocracy.

It also saw a long set of wars, known as the Italian Wars , between France and the House of Habsburg. French explorers, such as Jacques Cartier or Samuel de Champlain , claimed lands in the Americas for France, paving the way for the expansion of the First French colonial empire.

The rise of Protestantism in Europe led France to a civil war known as the French Wars of Religion , where, in the most notorious incident, thousands of Huguenots were murdered in the St. Bartholomew’s Day massacre of Spanish troops, the terror of Western Europe, [58] assisted the Catholic side during the Wars of Religion in —, and invaded northern France in ; after some skirmishing in the s and s, Spain and France returned to all-out war between and The war cost France , casualties.

Under Louis XIII , the energetic Cardinal Richelieu promoted the centralisation of the state and reinforced the royal power by disarming domestic power holders in the s. He systematically destroyed castles of defiant lords and denounced the use of private violence duelling, carrying weapons and maintaining private armies. By the end of the s, Richelieu established “the royal monopoly of force” as the doctrine. This rebellion was driven by the great feudal lords and sovereign courts as a reaction to the rise of royal absolute power in France.

The monarchy reached its peak during the 17th century and the reign of Louis XIV — By turning powerful feudal lords into courtiers at the Palace of Versailles , Louis XIV’s personal power became unchallenged. Remembered for his numerous wars, he made France the leading European power. France became the most populous country in Europe and had tremendous influence over European politics, economy, and culture.

French became the most-used language in diplomacy, science, literature and international affairs, and remained so until the 20th century. Under the wars of Louis XV r. Its European territory kept growing, however, with notable acquisitions such as Lorraine and Corsica An unpopular king, Louis XV’s weak rule, his ill-advised financial, political and military decisions — as well as the debauchery of his court— discredited the monarchy, which arguably paved the way for the French Revolution 15 years after his death.

Louis XVI r. France gained revenge but spent so heavily that the government verged on bankruptcy—a factor that contributed to the French Revolution. Some of the Enlightenment occurred in French intellectual circles, and major scientific breakthroughs and inventions, such as the discovery of oxygen and the first hot air balloon carrying passengers , were achieved by French scientists. The Enlightenment philosophy, in which reason is advocated as the primary source for legitimacy , undermined the power of and support for the monarchy and also was a factor in the French Revolution.

As it came to an impasse, the representatives of the Third Estate formed into a National Assembly , signalling the outbreak of the French Revolution. Fearing that the king would suppress the newly created National Assembly, insurgents stormed the Bastille on 14 July , a date which would become France’s National Day.

In early August , the National Constituent Assembly abolished the privileges of the nobility such as personal serfdom and exclusive hunting rights. Through the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen 27 August France established fundamental rights for men. The Declaration affirms “the natural and imprescriptible rights of man” to “liberty, property, security and resistance to oppression”. Freedom of speech and press were declared, and arbitrary arrests were outlawed.

It called for the destruction of aristocratic privileges and proclaimed freedom and equal rights for all men, as well as access to public office based on talent rather than birth. In November , the Assembly decided to nationalise and sell all property of the Catholic Church which had been the largest landowner in the country. In July , a Civil Constitution of the Clergy reorganised the French Catholic Church, cancelling the authority of the Church to levy taxes, et cetera.

This fueled much discontent in parts of France, which would contribute to the civil war breaking out some years later. While King Louis XVI still enjoyed popularity among the population, his disastrous flight to Varennes June seemed to justify rumours he had tied his hopes of political salvation to the prospects of foreign invasion.

His credibility was so deeply undermined that the abolition of the monarchy and establishment of a republic became an increasing possibility. In August , the Emperor of Austria and the King of Prussia in the Declaration of Pillnitz threatened revolutionary France to intervene by force of arms to restore the French absolute monarchy.

In the newly established Legislative Assembly October , enmity developed and deepened between a group, later called the ‘ Girondins ‘, who favoured war with Austria and Prussia , and a group later called ‘ Montagnards ‘ or ‘ Jacobins ‘, who opposed such a war. A majority in the Assembly in however saw a war with Austria and Prussia as a chance to boost the popularity of the revolutionary government and thought that France would win a war against those gathered monarchies.

On 20 April , therefore, they declared war on Austria. In early September, Parisians, infuriated by the Prussian Army capturing Verdun and counter-revolutionary uprisings in the west of France, murdered between 1, and 1, prisoners by raiding the Parisian prisons.

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Стратмор и его высокопоставленные посетители попадали в шифровалку и уходили незаметно для остальных сотрудников. Лифт спускался на пятьдесят ярдов вниз и затем двигался вбок по укрепленному туннелю еще сто девять ярдов в подземное помещение основного комплекса агентства. Лифт, соединяющий шифровалку с основным зданием, получал питание из главного комплекса, и оно действовало, несмотря на отключение питания шифровалки. Стратмору, разумеется, это было хорошо известно, но даже когда Сьюзан порывалась уйти через главный выход, он не обмолвился об этом ни единым словом.

The Nuclear Spectroscopy Laboratory, RIKEN Cluster for Pioneering Research, Japan is now seeking one Research Scientist (full-time indefinite-term employment position). ブーケ保存専門店フラワー工房Xing「シンフラワー」公式サイト。ウエディングブーケをアフターブーケとして保存加工。プロポーズなど思い出の花束・生花を美しいまま残せる方法。挙式後のご注文でも受付可能。1年間の無償保証。安心の10年サポート付き。. For any academic help you need, feel free to talk to our team for assistance and you will never regret your decision to work with us. We are reliable and established. You can entrust all your academic work to course help online for original and high quality papers submitted on time. We have worked with thousands of students from all over the world. France (French:), officially the French Republic (French: République française), is a transcontinental country predominantly located in Western Europe and spanning overseas regions and territories in the Americas and the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian Oceans. Its metropolitan area extends from the Rhine to the Atlantic Ocean and from the Mediterranean Sea to the English . Copy and paste this code into your website. Your Link .
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Дэвид Беккер умрет. Халохот поднимался вверх с пистолетом в руке, прижимаясь вплотную к стене на тот случай, если Беккер попытается напасть на него сверху. Железные подсвечники, установленные на каждой площадке, стали бы хорошим оружием, если бы Беккер решил ими воспользоваться.

У АН Б не было иного выбора, кроме как остановить его любой ценой. Арест и депортация Танкадо, широко освещавшиеся средствами массовой информации, стали печальным и позорным событием. Вопреки желанию Стратмора специалисты по заделыванию прорех такого рода, опасаясь, что Танкадо попытается убедить людей в существовании «ТРАНСТЕКСТА», начали распускать порочащие его слухи.

Он собирался совершить крупнейшую в своей жизни сделку – сделку, которая превратит его «Нуматек корпорейшн» в «Майкрософт» будущего. При мысли об этом он почувствовал прилив адреналина. Бизнес – это война, с которой ничто не сравнится по остроте ощущений.

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French Ministry for Culture. Ideal for sporty, adventurous bon vivants. Wake up with the glow of the first rays of the sun over the mangrove forest. First a hearty breakfast with a view of the islands Nosy Carry out your projects in complete safety June 17, For all your credit or financing needs, we offer our services. Reliable and very secure with a good interest rate. The property is about 12 minutes drive from Bought 15th October at Conforma, guaranteed for 2 years.

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С пистолетом в руке он рвался вперед, к тупику. Но Беккера там не оказалось, и он тихо застонал от злости. Беккер, спотыкаясь и кидаясь то вправо, то влево, продирался сквозь толпу.

Надо идти за ними, думал .